Wearable devices and its impact on the right to privacy of personal data
Corresponding Author(s) : Dr. ِAhmed Ragab sameida
Journal of Law and Emerging Technologies,
Vol. 4 No. 2 (2024)
Abstract
This study reveals the complexity of protecting personal data in the face of the challenges and risks that data collection and processing by AI offer to the fundamental right to privacy. It reviews the legislative regulation of personal data privacy in the European Union and its adequacy in achieving effective protection of that data when using wearable devices equipped with (AI) technologies, concluding with several recommendations aimed at developing the legislative and industrial framework to provide adequate protection for personal data in the face of these devices.
Keywords
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- - ALAMÄKI, Ari; MÄKI, Marko; RATNAYAKE, R. M. Chandima. Privacy concern, data quality and trustworthiness of AI-analytics. In: FAKE INTELLIGENCE ONLINE SUMMIT, 1., 2019, Pori, FI. Proceedings […]. Pori, FI: Satakunta University of Applied Sciences, 2019. p. 37-42. Available at: http://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi-fe2019051315372. Access on: July. 20, 2024.
- - ARORA, Chirag. Digital health fiduciaries: protecting user privacy when sharing health data. Ethics and Information Technology, [s. l.], v. 21, n. 3, p. 181-196, Feb. 2019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10676-019-09499-x. Available at: https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10676-019-09499-x.pdf. Access on July. 20, 2024. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10676-019-09499-x
- - BACHLECHNER, Daniel; VAN LIESHOUT, Marc; TIMAN, Tjerk. Privacy as enabler of innovation. In: FRIEDEWALD, Michael; ÖNEN, Melek; LIEVENS, Eva; KRENN, Stephan; FRICKER, Samuel (ed.). Privacy and identity management: data for better living: AI and privacy. Cham: Springer, 2020. p. 3-16. (IFIP AICT Tutorials, v. 576). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42504-3_1
- - BARBOZA, Júlia Zomignani; JASMONTAITÈ-ZANIEWICZ, Lina; DIVER, Laurence. Aid and AI: the challenge of reconciling humanitarian principles and data protection. In: FRIEDEWALD, Michael; ÖNEN, Melek; LIEVENS, Eva; KRENN, Stephan; FRICKER, Samuel (ed.). Privacy and identity management: data for better living: AI and privacy. Cham: Springer, 2020. p. 161-176. (IFIP AICT Tutorials, v. 576). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42504-3_11
- - CEVOLINI, Alberto; ESPOSITO, Elena. From pool to profile: social consequences of algorithmic prediction in insurance. Big Data & Society, [s. l.], v. 7, n. 2, p. 1-11, July/Dec. 2020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2053951720939228. Available at: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/2053951720939228. Access on: July. 20, 2024. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2053951720939228
- - CHANG, Anthony. The role of artificial intelligence in digital health. In: WULFOVICH, Sharon; MEYERS, Arlen (ed.). Digital health entrepreneurship. Cham: Springer, 2020. p. 71-81. (Health Informatics). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12719-0_7
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- - ELS, Andrea Scripa. Artificial intelligence as a digital privacy protector. Harvard Journal of Law & Technology, [s. l.], v. 31, n. 1, p. 217-235, 2017. Available at: https://jolt.law.harvard.edu/assets/articlePDFs/v31/31HarvJLTech217.pdf. Access on: July. 20, 2024, p234-235.
- - European Data Protection Supervisor (EDPS), Opinion 1/2015: Mobile Health - Reconciling Technological Innovation with Data Protection, 21 May 2015, Brussels.
- - EUROPEAN UNION. Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016. On the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data and repealing Directive 95/46/EC (General Data Protection Regulation). Brussels : EUR-Lex, 2016. Available at : https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2016/679/oj. Access on: July. 20, 2024.
- - Garcia-Mancilla, J., & Gonzalez, V. M. (2015). Stress quantification using a wearable device for daily feedback to improve stress management. Paper presented at the ICSH; Sano, A., & Picard, R. W. (2013). Stress recognition using wearable sensors and mobile phones. Paper presented at the 2013 Humaine Association Conference on Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction.
- - GIANNOPOULOU, Alexandra. Algorithmic systems: the consent is in the detail? Internet Policy Review, [s. l.], v. 9, n. 1, p. 1-19, Mar. 2020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14763/2020.1.1452. Available at: https://policyreview.info/articles/analysis/algorithmic-systems-consent-detail. Access on: July. 20, 2024. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14763/2020.1.1452
- - Gloria González Fuster and Amandine Scherrer (2015), ‘Big Data and Smart Devices and their Impact on Privacy ‘, under the coordination of the Centre d’Etudes sur les Conflits,Liberté et Sécurité (CCLS) and the Centre for European Policy Studies (CEPS), Policy Department C – Citizens’ Rights and Constitutional Affairs European Parliament.
- - HUMERICK, Matthew. Taking AI personally: how the E.U. must learn to balance the interests of personal data privacy & artificial intelligence. Santa Clara High Technology Law Journal, [s. l.], v. 34, n. 4, p. 393-418, 2018. Available at: https://digitalcommons.law.scu.edu/chtlj/vol34/iss4/3/. Access on: July. 20, 2024.
- - ILIADIS, Andrew. Computer guts and swallowed sensors: ingestibles made palatable in an era of embodied computing. In: PEDERSEN, Isabel; ILIADIS, Andrew (ed.). Embodied computing: wearables, embeddables, ingestibles. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2020. p. 1-20. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/11564.003.0003
- - JIN, Ginger Zhe. Artificial intelligence and consumer privacy. In: AGRAWAL, Ajay; GANS, Joshua; GOLDFARB, Avi (ed.). The economics of artificial intelligence: an agenda. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2019. p. 439-462. (National Bureau of Economic Research Conference Report). DOI: https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226613475.003.0018
- - KATYAL, Sonia K. Private accountability in the age of artificial intelligence. UCLA Law Review, [s. l.], v. 66, n. 1, p. 54-141, Jan. 2019. Available at: https://www.uclalawreview.org/private-accountability-age-algorithm/. Access on: July. 20, 2024.
- - KAZGAN, Mehmet. Real challenge in digital health entrepreneurship: changing the human behavior. In: WULFOVICH, Sharon; MEYERS, Arlen (ed.). Digital health entrepreneurship. Cham: Springer, 2020. p. 7-15. (Health Informatics). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12719-0_2
- - KELLER, Perry. The reconstruction of privacy through law: a strategy of diminishing expectations. International Data Privacy Law, [s. l.], v. 9, n. 3, p. 132-152, Aug. 2019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/idpl/ipz012. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/idpl/ipz012
- - LOBERA, Josep; FERNÁNDEZ RODRÍGUEZ, Carlos J.; TORRES-ALBERO, Cristóbal. Privacy, values and machines: predicting opposition to artificial intelligence. Communication Studies, [s. l.], v. 71, n. 3, p. 448-465, Mar. 2020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10510974.2020.1736114. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10510974.2020.1736114
- - LUPTON, Deborah. Wearable devices: sociotechnical imaginaries and agential capacities. In: PEDERSEN, Isabel; ILIADIS, Andrew (ed.). Embodied computing: wearables, embeddables, ingestibles. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2020. p. 49-69. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/11564.003.0005
- - Nagtegaal et al. (2015), Internet of Things: Wearable Technology, Business Innovation Observatory, Directorate-General for Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship and SMEs, European Commission, February 2015.
- - PEDERSEN, Isabel. Will the body become a platform? Body networks, datafied bodies, and AI futures. In: PEDERSEN, Isabel; ILIADIS, Andrew (ed.). Embodied computing: wearables, embeddables, ingestibles. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2020. p. 21-48. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/11564.003.0004
- - PELTZ, James; STREET, Anita C. Artificial intelligence and ethical dilemmas involving privacy. In: MASAKOWSKI, Yvonne R. (ed.). Artificial intelligence and global security: future trends, threats and considerations. Bingley, UK: Emerald Publishing, 2020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-78973-811-720201006
- - ROHRINGER, Taryn J.; BUDHKAR, Akshay; RUDZICZ, Frank. Privacy versus artificial intelligence in medicine. University of Toronto Medical Journal, [s. l.], v. 96, n. 1, p. 51-53, Jan. 2019. Available at https://jps.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/utmj/issue/download/2376/453#page=52. Access on: July. 20, 2024. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtumed.2024.12.011
- - RUBINSTEIN, Ira S.; GOOD, Nathaniel. The trouble with Article 25 (and how to fix it): the future of data protection by design and default. International Data Privacy Law, [s. l.], v. 10, n. 1, p. 37-56, Feb. 2020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/idpl/ipz019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/idpl/ipz019
- - SOARES, Paulo Vinícius de Carvalho. A diluição das esferas de privacidade e de intimidade diante da era dos dados. In: LUCON, Paulo Henrique dos Santos; WOLKART, Erik Navarro; LAUX, Francisco de Mesquita; RAVAGNANI, Giovani dos Santos (coord.). Direito, processo e tecnologia. São Paulo: Revista dos Tribunais, 2020. p. 555-574. (Coleção Direito e Novas Tecnologias).
- - STEIN, Amy L. Artificial intelligence and climate change. Yale Journal on Regulation, [s. l.], v. 37, n. 3, p. 890-939, 2020. Available at: https://www.yalejreg.com/print/artificial-intelligence-and-climate-change/ Access on: July. 20, 2024.
- - Swan, M. (2012). Sensor mania! the internet of things, wearable computing, objective metrics, and the quantified self 2.0. Journal of Sensor Actuator networks, 1(3), 217-253. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/jsan1030217
- - TSCHIDER, Charlotte A. The healthcare privacy-artificial intelligence impasse. Santa Clara High Technology Law Journal, [s. l.], v. 36, n. 4, p. 439-443, 2020. Available at: https://lawecommons.luc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1689&context=facpubs. Access on: July. 20, 2024.
- - TUCKER, Catherine. Privacy, algorithms, and artificial intelligence. In: AGRAWAL, Ajay; GANS, Joshua; GOLDFARB, Avi (ed.). The economics of artificial intelligence: an agenda. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2019. p. 423-438. (National Bureau of Economic Research Conference Report). DOI: https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226613475.003.0017
- - WACHTER, Sandra; MITTELSTADT, Brent. A right to reasonable inferences: re-thinking data protection law in the age of big data and AI. Columbia Business Law Review, [s. l.], v. 2.019, n. 2, p. 494-620, May 2019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7916/cblr.v2019i2.3424. Available at: https://journals.library.columbia.edu/index.php/CBLR/article/view/3424. Access on: July. 20, 2024.
- - YANISKY-RAVID, Shlomit; HALLISEY, Sean K. “Equality and privacy by design”: a new model of artificial intelligence data transparency via auditing, certification, and safe harbor regimes. Fordham Urban Law Journal, [s. l.], v. 46, n. 2, p. 428-486, 2019. Available at: https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/ulj/vol46/iss2/5. Access on: July. 20, 2024.
- B- websites:
- - https://strongholddata.com/wearable-technology-in-healthcare/
References
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- ARORA, Chirag. Digital health fiduciaries: protecting user privacy when sharing health data. Ethics and Information Technology, [s. l.], v. 21, n. 3, p. 181-196, Feb. 2019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10676-019-09499-x. Available at: https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10676-019-09499-x.pdf. Access on July. 20, 2024. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10676-019-09499-x
- BACHLECHNER, Daniel; VAN LIESHOUT, Marc; TIMAN, Tjerk. Privacy as enabler of innovation. In: FRIEDEWALD, Michael; ÖNEN, Melek; LIEVENS, Eva; KRENN, Stephan; FRICKER, Samuel (ed.). Privacy and identity management: data for better living: AI and privacy. Cham: Springer, 2020. p. 3-16. (IFIP AICT Tutorials, v. 576). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42504-3_1
- BARBOZA, Júlia Zomignani; JASMONTAITÈ-ZANIEWICZ, Lina; DIVER, Laurence. Aid and AI: the challenge of reconciling humanitarian principles and data protection. In: FRIEDEWALD, Michael; ÖNEN, Melek; LIEVENS, Eva; KRENN, Stephan; FRICKER, Samuel (ed.). Privacy and identity management: data for better living: AI and privacy. Cham: Springer, 2020. p. 161-176. (IFIP AICT Tutorials, v. 576). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42504-3_11
- CEVOLINI, Alberto; ESPOSITO, Elena. From pool to profile: social consequences of algorithmic prediction in insurance. Big Data & Society, [s. l.], v. 7, n. 2, p. 1-11, July/Dec. 2020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2053951720939228. Available at: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/2053951720939228. Access on: July. 20, 2024. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2053951720939228
- CHANG, Anthony. The role of artificial intelligence in digital health. In: WULFOVICH, Sharon; MEYERS, Arlen (ed.). Digital health entrepreneurship. Cham: Springer, 2020. p. 71-81. (Health Informatics). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12719-0_7
- COTINO HUESO, Lorenzo. Big data e inteligencia artificial: una aproximación a su tratamiento jurídico desde los derechos fundamentales. Dilemata, [s. l.], año 9, n. 24, p. 131-150, 2017. Available at: https://www.dilemata.net/revista/index.php/dilemata/article/view/412000104. Access on: July. 20, 2024.
- ELS, Andrea Scripa. Artificial intelligence as a digital privacy protector. Harvard Journal of Law & Technology, [s. l.], v. 31, n. 1, p. 217-235, 2017. Available at: https://jolt.law.harvard.edu/assets/articlePDFs/v31/31HarvJLTech217.pdf. Access on: July. 20, 2024, p234-235.
- European Data Protection Supervisor (EDPS), Opinion 1/2015: Mobile Health - Reconciling Technological Innovation with Data Protection, 21 May 2015, Brussels.
- EUROPEAN UNION. Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016. On the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data and repealing Directive 95/46/EC (General Data Protection Regulation). Brussels : EUR-Lex, 2016. Available at : https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2016/679/oj. Access on: July. 20, 2024.
- Garcia-Mancilla, J., & Gonzalez, V. M. (2015). Stress quantification using a wearable device for daily feedback to improve stress management. Paper presented at the ICSH; Sano, A., & Picard, R. W. (2013). Stress recognition using wearable sensors and mobile phones. Paper presented at the 2013 Humaine Association Conference on Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction.
- GIANNOPOULOU, Alexandra. Algorithmic systems: the consent is in the detail? Internet Policy Review, [s. l.], v. 9, n. 1, p. 1-19, Mar. 2020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14763/2020.1.1452. Available at: https://policyreview.info/articles/analysis/algorithmic-systems-consent-detail. Access on: July. 20, 2024. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14763/2020.1.1452
- Gloria González Fuster and Amandine Scherrer (2015), ‘Big Data and Smart Devices and their Impact on Privacy ‘, under the coordination of the Centre d’Etudes sur les Conflits,Liberté et Sécurité (CCLS) and the Centre for European Policy Studies (CEPS), Policy Department C – Citizens’ Rights and Constitutional Affairs European Parliament.
- HUMERICK, Matthew. Taking AI personally: how the E.U. must learn to balance the interests of personal data privacy & artificial intelligence. Santa Clara High Technology Law Journal, [s. l.], v. 34, n. 4, p. 393-418, 2018. Available at: https://digitalcommons.law.scu.edu/chtlj/vol34/iss4/3/. Access on: July. 20, 2024.
- ILIADIS, Andrew. Computer guts and swallowed sensors: ingestibles made palatable in an era of embodied computing. In: PEDERSEN, Isabel; ILIADIS, Andrew (ed.). Embodied computing: wearables, embeddables, ingestibles. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2020. p. 1-20. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/11564.003.0003
- JIN, Ginger Zhe. Artificial intelligence and consumer privacy. In: AGRAWAL, Ajay; GANS, Joshua; GOLDFARB, Avi (ed.). The economics of artificial intelligence: an agenda. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2019. p. 439-462. (National Bureau of Economic Research Conference Report). DOI: https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226613475.003.0018
- KATYAL, Sonia K. Private accountability in the age of artificial intelligence. UCLA Law Review, [s. l.], v. 66, n. 1, p. 54-141, Jan. 2019. Available at: https://www.uclalawreview.org/private-accountability-age-algorithm/. Access on: July. 20, 2024.
- KAZGAN, Mehmet. Real challenge in digital health entrepreneurship: changing the human behavior. In: WULFOVICH, Sharon; MEYERS, Arlen (ed.). Digital health entrepreneurship. Cham: Springer, 2020. p. 7-15. (Health Informatics). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12719-0_2
- KELLER, Perry. The reconstruction of privacy through law: a strategy of diminishing expectations. International Data Privacy Law, [s. l.], v. 9, n. 3, p. 132-152, Aug. 2019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/idpl/ipz012. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/idpl/ipz012
- LOBERA, Josep; FERNÁNDEZ RODRÍGUEZ, Carlos J.; TORRES-ALBERO, Cristóbal. Privacy, values and machines: predicting opposition to artificial intelligence. Communication Studies, [s. l.], v. 71, n. 3, p. 448-465, Mar. 2020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10510974.2020.1736114. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10510974.2020.1736114
- LUPTON, Deborah. Wearable devices: sociotechnical imaginaries and agential capacities. In: PEDERSEN, Isabel; ILIADIS, Andrew (ed.). Embodied computing: wearables, embeddables, ingestibles. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2020. p. 49-69. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/11564.003.0005
- Nagtegaal et al. (2015), Internet of Things: Wearable Technology, Business Innovation Observatory, Directorate-General for Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship and SMEs, European Commission, February 2015.
- PEDERSEN, Isabel. Will the body become a platform? Body networks, datafied bodies, and AI futures. In: PEDERSEN, Isabel; ILIADIS, Andrew (ed.). Embodied computing: wearables, embeddables, ingestibles. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2020. p. 21-48. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/11564.003.0004
- PELTZ, James; STREET, Anita C. Artificial intelligence and ethical dilemmas involving privacy. In: MASAKOWSKI, Yvonne R. (ed.). Artificial intelligence and global security: future trends, threats and considerations. Bingley, UK: Emerald Publishing, 2020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-78973-811-720201006
- ROHRINGER, Taryn J.; BUDHKAR, Akshay; RUDZICZ, Frank. Privacy versus artificial intelligence in medicine. University of Toronto Medical Journal, [s. l.], v. 96, n. 1, p. 51-53, Jan. 2019. Available at https://jps.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/utmj/issue/download/2376/453#page=52. Access on: July. 20, 2024. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtumed.2024.12.011
- RUBINSTEIN, Ira S.; GOOD, Nathaniel. The trouble with Article 25 (and how to fix it): the future of data protection by design and default. International Data Privacy Law, [s. l.], v. 10, n. 1, p. 37-56, Feb. 2020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/idpl/ipz019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/idpl/ipz019
- SOARES, Paulo Vinícius de Carvalho. A diluição das esferas de privacidade e de intimidade diante da era dos dados. In: LUCON, Paulo Henrique dos Santos; WOLKART, Erik Navarro; LAUX, Francisco de Mesquita; RAVAGNANI, Giovani dos Santos (coord.). Direito, processo e tecnologia. São Paulo: Revista dos Tribunais, 2020. p. 555-574. (Coleção Direito e Novas Tecnologias).
- STEIN, Amy L. Artificial intelligence and climate change. Yale Journal on Regulation, [s. l.], v. 37, n. 3, p. 890-939, 2020. Available at: https://www.yalejreg.com/print/artificial-intelligence-and-climate-change/ Access on: July. 20, 2024.
- Swan, M. (2012). Sensor mania! the internet of things, wearable computing, objective metrics, and the quantified self 2.0. Journal of Sensor Actuator networks, 1(3), 217-253. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/jsan1030217
- TSCHIDER, Charlotte A. The healthcare privacy-artificial intelligence impasse. Santa Clara High Technology Law Journal, [s. l.], v. 36, n. 4, p. 439-443, 2020. Available at: https://lawecommons.luc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1689&context=facpubs. Access on: July. 20, 2024.
- TUCKER, Catherine. Privacy, algorithms, and artificial intelligence. In: AGRAWAL, Ajay; GANS, Joshua; GOLDFARB, Avi (ed.). The economics of artificial intelligence: an agenda. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2019. p. 423-438. (National Bureau of Economic Research Conference Report). DOI: https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226613475.003.0017
- WACHTER, Sandra; MITTELSTADT, Brent. A right to reasonable inferences: re-thinking data protection law in the age of big data and AI. Columbia Business Law Review, [s. l.], v. 2.019, n. 2, p. 494-620, May 2019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7916/cblr.v2019i2.3424. Available at: https://journals.library.columbia.edu/index.php/CBLR/article/view/3424. Access on: July. 20, 2024.
- YANISKY-RAVID, Shlomit; HALLISEY, Sean K. “Equality and privacy by design”: a new model of artificial intelligence data transparency via auditing, certification, and safe harbor regimes. Fordham Urban Law Journal, [s. l.], v. 46, n. 2, p. 428-486, 2019. Available at: https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/ulj/vol46/iss2/5. Access on: July. 20, 2024.
B- websites:
- https://strongholddata.com/wearable-technology-in-healthcare/