Human Rights in the Era of AI: Privacy, Discrimination, and What States and Corporations Do?
Corresponding Author(s) : Dr. Ahmed Mohamed Salah El_Alfy
Journal of Law and Emerging Technologies,
Vol. 5 No. 1 (2025)
Abstract
"This paper examines the impact of Artificial Intelligence (AI) on human rights, with a particular focus on privacy and discrimination, alongside the responsibilities of states and corporate actors. As AI becomes increasingly integral to various aspects of life, it presents both significant opportunities and substantial risks. Key concerns include potential privacy violations and the emergence or exacerbation of algorithmic discrimination.
This study analyzes these impacts through the scope of international human rights law, investigating the corresponding obligations of states and companies to ensure the ethical and equitable development and deployment of AI systems. Employing a mixed-methods approach, this research integrates legal analysis, case studies, and policy reviews. The objective is to evaluate the effectiveness of existing regulatory frameworks, including the EU's Artificial Intelligence Act (AI Act), in addressing these challenges.
The potential for AI systems to perpetuate biases, infringe upon privacy rights, and introduce novel forms of discrimination underscores the necessity for robust governance measures. The research indicates that states have a critical responsibility to regulate AI technologies, while companies should adopt human rights-based approaches within their AI practices. Consequently, this study highlights the urgent need for international cooperation to establish clear legal and ethical frameworks to safeguard human rights in the era of AI."
Keywords: Artificial Intelligence (AI), Human Rights, AI Governance, EU Artificial Intelligence Act (AI Act) and International Human Rights Law.
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- Books, Articles, and Reports
- Canales, Maria Paz, Ian Barber, and Jacqueline Rowe. What Would a Human Rights-Based Approach to AI Governance Look Like? Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs, Global Partners Digital, 19 Sept. 2023, www.gp-digital.org/what-would-a-human-rights-based-approach-to-ai-governance-look-like/.
- Eubanks, Virginia. Automating Inequality: How High-Tech Tools Profile, Police, and Punish the Poor. St. Martin's Press, 2018.
- McNeilly, Melissa. "The Human Rights Risks of Artificial Intelligence (AI)." New Tactics in Human Rights, 24 July 2023, www.newtactics.org/perspectives/human-rights-risks-artificial-intelligence-ai/.
- SA, Jane. "Artificial Intelligence: A Threat to Privacy?" Nirma University Law Journal, vol. 8, no. 2, 2019.
- Scassa, Teresa, et al. "Privacy, Ethics, and Contact-Tracing Apps." Vulnerable: The Law and Policy of COVID-19, edited by Colleen M. Flood et al., University of Ottawa Press, 2020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.22247013.23
- Shabani, Sanaz, and Niki Jabbari. "The Impacts of Technology on the Human Rights of Linguistic Minorities." Specialusis Ugdymas/Special Education, vol. 1, no. 43, 2022.
- Warren, Samuel D., and Louis D. Brandeis. "The Right to Privacy." Harvard Law Review, vol. 4, no. 5, 1890. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1321160
- Zuboff, Shoshana. "Big Other: Surveillance Capitalism and the Prospects of an Information Civilization." Journal of Information Technology, vol. 30, no. 1, 2015. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/jit.2015.5
- Cases
- Case C-131/12, Google Spain SL and Google Inc. v Agencia Española de Protección de Datos (AEPD) and Mario Costeja González. Court of Justice of the European Union, 13 May 2014.
- Case C-634/21, SCHUFA Holding AG (Scoring). Court of Justice of the European Union, 7 Dec. 2023.
- Case C-645/19, Facebook Ireland Ltd and Others v Gegevensbeschermingsautoriteit. Court of Justice of the European Union, 15 June 2021.
- International Instruments, Declarations, and Guidelines
- Article 29 Data Protection Working Party. Guidelines on Automated Individual Decision-making and Profiling for the Purposes of Regulation 2016/679. WP251 rev. 01, 3 Oct. 2017.
- Council of Europe. Framework Convention on Artificial Intelligence and Human Rights, Democracy and the Rule of Law. CETS No. 224, 17 May 2024. Council of Europe Treaty Office, www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=treaty-detail&treatynum=224.
- European Commission, High-Level Expert Group on AI. Ethics Guidelines for Trustworthy AI. 2019.
- Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). The Corporate Responsibility to Respect Human Rights: An Interpretive Guide. 2012.
- Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Recommendation of the Council on Artificial Intelligence. OECD/LEGAL/0449, 2019.
- Toronto Declaration: Protecting the Right to Equality and Non-Discrimination in Machine Learning Systems. [Publisher/Organization if known], [Date if known]. (Note: Add publisher/date if available).
- UNESCO. Recommendation on the Ethics of Artificial Intelligence. SHS/BIO/PI/2021/1, 2021.
- United Nations, Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. General Comment No. 25 (2020) on Science and Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Article 15). E/C.12/GC/25, 2020.
- United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. The Right to Privacy in the Digital Age: Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. A/HRC/39/29, 2018, www.ohchr.org/en/documents/reports/ahrc3929-right-privacy-digital-age-report-united-nations-high-commissioner-human.
- United Nations, Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights. Norms on the Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations and Other Business Enterprises with Regard to Human Rights. E/CN.4/Sub.2/2003/12/Rev.2, 2003.
References
Books, Articles, and Reports
Canales, Maria Paz, Ian Barber, and Jacqueline Rowe. What Would a Human Rights-Based Approach to AI Governance Look Like? Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs, Global Partners Digital, 19 Sept. 2023, www.gp-digital.org/what-would-a-human-rights-based-approach-to-ai-governance-look-like/.
Eubanks, Virginia. Automating Inequality: How High-Tech Tools Profile, Police, and Punish the Poor. St. Martin's Press, 2018.
McNeilly, Melissa. "The Human Rights Risks of Artificial Intelligence (AI)." New Tactics in Human Rights, 24 July 2023, www.newtactics.org/perspectives/human-rights-risks-artificial-intelligence-ai/.
SA, Jane. "Artificial Intelligence: A Threat to Privacy?" Nirma University Law Journal, vol. 8, no. 2, 2019.
Scassa, Teresa, et al. "Privacy, Ethics, and Contact-Tracing Apps." Vulnerable: The Law and Policy of COVID-19, edited by Colleen M. Flood et al., University of Ottawa Press, 2020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.22247013.23
Shabani, Sanaz, and Niki Jabbari. "The Impacts of Technology on the Human Rights of Linguistic Minorities." Specialusis Ugdymas/Special Education, vol. 1, no. 43, 2022.
Warren, Samuel D., and Louis D. Brandeis. "The Right to Privacy." Harvard Law Review, vol. 4, no. 5, 1890. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1321160
Zuboff, Shoshana. "Big Other: Surveillance Capitalism and the Prospects of an Information Civilization." Journal of Information Technology, vol. 30, no. 1, 2015. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/jit.2015.5
Cases
Case C-131/12, Google Spain SL and Google Inc. v Agencia Española de Protección de Datos (AEPD) and Mario Costeja González. Court of Justice of the European Union, 13 May 2014.
Case C-634/21, SCHUFA Holding AG (Scoring). Court of Justice of the European Union, 7 Dec. 2023.
Case C-645/19, Facebook Ireland Ltd and Others v Gegevensbeschermingsautoriteit. Court of Justice of the European Union, 15 June 2021.
International Instruments, Declarations, and Guidelines
Article 29 Data Protection Working Party. Guidelines on Automated Individual Decision-making and Profiling for the Purposes of Regulation 2016/679. WP251 rev. 01, 3 Oct. 2017.
Council of Europe. Framework Convention on Artificial Intelligence and Human Rights, Democracy and the Rule of Law. CETS No. 224, 17 May 2024. Council of Europe Treaty Office, www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=treaty-detail&treatynum=224.
European Commission, High-Level Expert Group on AI. Ethics Guidelines for Trustworthy AI. 2019.
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). The Corporate Responsibility to Respect Human Rights: An Interpretive Guide. 2012.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Recommendation of the Council on Artificial Intelligence. OECD/LEGAL/0449, 2019.
Toronto Declaration: Protecting the Right to Equality and Non-Discrimination in Machine Learning Systems. [Publisher/Organization if known], [Date if known]. (Note: Add publisher/date if available).
UNESCO. Recommendation on the Ethics of Artificial Intelligence. SHS/BIO/PI/2021/1, 2021.
United Nations, Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. General Comment No. 25 (2020) on Science and Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Article 15). E/C.12/GC/25, 2020.
United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. The Right to Privacy in the Digital Age: Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. A/HRC/39/29, 2018, www.ohchr.org/en/documents/reports/ahrc3929-right-privacy-digital-age-report-united-nations-high-commissioner-human.
United Nations, Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights. Norms on the Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations and Other Business Enterprises with Regard to Human Rights. E/CN.4/Sub.2/2003/12/Rev.2, 2003.
