Legal Perspectives on the use of Emerging Technologies in Elections in Africa
Corresponding Author(s) : Dr. Abdul Azeez Yusuf
Journal of Law and Emerging Technologies,
Vol. 4 No. 2 (2024)
Abstract
This paper investigates the reception, integration, and use of new technologies in the preparation, conduct, and management of elections in Africa. Historically, elections have been manually conducted, but due to a distrust of the system by voters, and the quest for modernization and better ways of doing things, there is a frenzied adoption of new technologies in the electoral system. Although, this is a welcome development, but this paper, however, calls for caution as the deployment of new technologies has elicited mixed reactions, recorded twists and turns, and presented even new challenges. These include another phase of trust deficit by the electorate; the prohibitive cost of acquiring new technologies, and the judicialization of elections, even in some of the advanced countries where new technologies were being used. A better understanding of the intersection between technology and voting is, thus, necessary and imperative to interrogate the circumstances and legal environment in which the emerging technologies are also being used in Africa, so as to understand why and how they have produced unintended consequences. This paper seeks to achieve this through the doctrinal method of legal research.
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- Ace-The Electoral Knowledge Network, A Brief Background of Electronic Voting and Vote Counting Systems,
- https://aceproject.org/ace en/topics/em/emia/emia11/mobile_browsing/onePag.
- Adam Teufel, Courts in Transition: Kenya’s Contested Presidential Election, European Council on Foreign Relations, https://ecfr.eu/article/court-in-transition-kenyas-contested- presidential-election/ , 2022.
- African Charter on Democracy, Elections and Governance, 30th January 2007.
- Agbaje A., and Adejumobi, S, Do Votes Count?: The Travails of Electoral Politics in Nigeria. Africa Development, 31(3), 25-44, 2006.
- Ahmed Ben Ayed, A Conceptual Secure Block Chain-Based Electronic Voting System, International Journal of Network Security and its Applications (IJNSA) Vol.9. No.3, p. 2, 2017. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5121/ijnsa.2017.9301
- Anietie Ewang, Nigeria’s Elections Remain Risky for Many Citizens: Authorities Need to Effectively Protect Polling Locations, Human Rights Watch, https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/02/27/nigerias-elections-remain-risky-many-citizens, 2023.
- BBC News, Namibia Votes in Africa’s First Election Poll. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-30241377 , 2014.
- Caarls, S., E-voting Handbook: Key Steps in the Implementation of E-enabled Elections, Council of Europe, p.7, 2010.
- Camillus Eboh, Nigeria’s Obi, Atiku Challenge Presidential Election Results, Reuters. 22nd March 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/nigerias-obi-petitions-court-over-presidential-election-result-2023-03-21/ , 2023.
- Carback III, R. T, Engineering Practical End-to-End Verifiable Voting Systems, University of Maryland: Baltimore County, 2010.
- Christopher Zambakari, Military Coup in Niger: The Legacies of Colonialism and the U.S. War on Terror in West Africa, The Zambakari Advisory, Africa Report No 14, SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4546350 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4546350, 2023. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4546350
- Collins English Dictionary, Voting, https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/voting.
- Dana Indra Sensuse, Pandu Bintang Pratama and Riswanto Aris, Conceptual Model of E-Voting in Indonesia, International Conference on Information Management and Technology, 13th -14th August. P. 387, 2020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/ICIMTech50083.2020.9211156
- Dennis Erezi, Supreme Court Affirms Tinubu’s Election, Dismisses Appeal by Atiku, Peter Obi, The Guardian 26th October, 2023, https://guardian.ng/news/supreme-court-affirm-tinubus-election-dismisses-appeal-by-atiku-peter-obi/ , 2023.
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- European Digital Rights (EDRi), Electronic Voting Machines Eliminated in the Netherlands, https://edri.org/our-work/edrigramnumber5-20e-voting-machines-netherlands/, 2007.
- European Union Election Observation Mission Nigeria 2023, Second Preliminary statement, Abuja, Governorship and State House of Assembly elections, 2023.
- Friedman, B.A, West Africa’s Decisive Intervention: A Lesson in Strategy, https://thestrategybridge.org/the-bridge/2017/3/15/west-africas-decisive-intervention-a-lesson-in-strategy, 2017.
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- German Institute for Global and Area Studies (GIGA), Paper Ballots With Digital Transparency: Kenya’s Pioneering Election, https://www.giga-hamburg.de/en/publications/giga-focus/paper-allots-with-digital-transparency-kenya-s-pioneering-election, 2022.
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- https://info.kpmg.us/news-perspectives/technology-innovation/emerging-technologies-and-impact-on society.html , 2018.
- Idris Ademuyiwa and Adedeji Adeniran, Assessing Data Protection and Privacy in Africa, Centre for International Governance Innovation (CIGI), Paper No. 244, 2020.
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- International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (IDEA), Introducing Electronic Voting: Essential Considerations, Policy Paper, International IDEA Resources on Electoral Processes, 2011.
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- Okediran, O. O., Omidiora, E. O., Olabiyisi, S. O., Ganiyu R. A., & Alo O. O., A Framework for Electronic Voting System, International Journal of Applied Science and Technology, 1 (4), 2011.
- Patrick J. McGowan, African Military Coup d’e tat, 1956 -2001: Frequency, Trends and Distribution, Journal of Modern African Studies, 2023.
- Philippe C. Schmitter and Terry Lynn Karl, ‘What is Democracy…and is not’ Journal of Democracy, Vol.2. No. 3 (Summer), 1991. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.1991.0033
- Reddy, A. V., and Raghavan, S, Architecture of Multi-Channel Multi-Database. India: Network Systems Laboratory, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, 2009.
- Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27th April 2016 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, and repealing Directive 95/46/EC (General Data Protection Regulation), 2016.
- Rose Mosero, Technology and Data Protection must go Hand-in-Hand, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/08/08/in-kenya-s-2022-elections-technology-and-data-protection-must-go-hand-in-hand-pub-87647 , 2022.
- Sinan Kufeoglu, Emerging Technologies, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361926605_Emerging_Technologies, ResearchGate.
- Todd Landman, Developing Democracy: Concepts, Measures, and Empirical Relationships, Centre for Democratic Governance Department of Government, University of Essex Wivenhoe Park Colchester, EssexCO4 3SQ United Kingdom, Sweden: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2007.
- Voter Registration: Basic Elements of Voter Registration, https://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/wps/publication/Chapter4.htm, 2023.
- Wig, T., and Rod, E. G., Cues to Coup Plotters: Elections as Coup Triggers in Dictatorships, Journal of Conflict Resolution, 60(5), 787-812, 2016. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002714553106
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- Yu, S., Big privacy: Challenges and Opportunities of Privacy Study in the Age of Big Data, IEEE Access, 4, 2751-2763, 2016. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2016.2577036
References
Ace-The Electoral Knowledge Network, A Brief Background of Electronic Voting and Vote Counting Systems,
https://aceproject.org/ace en/topics/em/emia/emia11/mobile_browsing/onePag.
Adam Teufel, Courts in Transition: Kenya’s Contested Presidential Election, European Council on Foreign Relations, https://ecfr.eu/article/court-in-transition-kenyas-contested- presidential-election/ , 2022.
African Charter on Democracy, Elections and Governance, 30th January 2007.
Agbaje A., and Adejumobi, S, Do Votes Count?: The Travails of Electoral Politics in Nigeria. Africa Development, 31(3), 25-44, 2006.
Ahmed Ben Ayed, A Conceptual Secure Block Chain-Based Electronic Voting System, International Journal of Network Security and its Applications (IJNSA) Vol.9. No.3, p. 2, 2017. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5121/ijnsa.2017.9301
Anietie Ewang, Nigeria’s Elections Remain Risky for Many Citizens: Authorities Need to Effectively Protect Polling Locations, Human Rights Watch, https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/02/27/nigerias-elections-remain-risky-many-citizens, 2023.
BBC News, Namibia Votes in Africa’s First Election Poll. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-30241377 , 2014.
Caarls, S., E-voting Handbook: Key Steps in the Implementation of E-enabled Elections, Council of Europe, p.7, 2010.
Camillus Eboh, Nigeria’s Obi, Atiku Challenge Presidential Election Results, Reuters. 22nd March 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/nigerias-obi-petitions-court-over-presidential-election-result-2023-03-21/ , 2023.
Carback III, R. T, Engineering Practical End-to-End Verifiable Voting Systems, University of Maryland: Baltimore County, 2010.
Christopher Zambakari, Military Coup in Niger: The Legacies of Colonialism and the U.S. War on Terror in West Africa, The Zambakari Advisory, Africa Report No 14, SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4546350 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4546350, 2023. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4546350
Collins English Dictionary, Voting, https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/voting.
Dana Indra Sensuse, Pandu Bintang Pratama and Riswanto Aris, Conceptual Model of E-Voting in Indonesia, International Conference on Information Management and Technology, 13th -14th August. P. 387, 2020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/ICIMTech50083.2020.9211156
Dennis Erezi, Supreme Court Affirms Tinubu’s Election, Dismisses Appeal by Atiku, Peter Obi, The Guardian 26th October, 2023, https://guardian.ng/news/supreme-court-affirm-tinubus-election-dismisses-appeal-by-atiku-peter-obi/ , 2023.
Elekwa, N.N and Okechukwu I. Eme, Post Election Violence in Africa: A Comparative Case of Kenya and Zimbabwe, The Indian Journal of Political Science, Vol. LXXII. No. 3. Pp. 833 – 844, 2011.
European Digital Rights (EDRi), Electronic Voting Machines Eliminated in the Netherlands, https://edri.org/our-work/edrigramnumber5-20e-voting-machines-netherlands/, 2007.
European Union Election Observation Mission Nigeria 2023, Second Preliminary statement, Abuja, Governorship and State House of Assembly elections, 2023.
Friedman, B.A, West Africa’s Decisive Intervention: A Lesson in Strategy, https://thestrategybridge.org/the-bridge/2017/3/15/west-africas-decisive-intervention-a-lesson-in-strategy, 2017.
Gathii, James Thuo, and Olabisi D. Akinkugbe, “Judicialization of Election Disputes in Africa's International Courts." Law & Contemp. Probs. 84: p. 181, 2021.
German Institute for Global and Area Studies (GIGA), Paper Ballots With Digital Transparency: Kenya’s Pioneering Election, https://www.giga-hamburg.de/en/publications/giga-focus/paper-allots-with-digital-transparency-kenya-s-pioneering-election, 2022.
Gylfason Thoryaldur, Democracy in Africa, Africa growth Agenda, Vol. 10. No. 4, 2013.
https://info.kpmg.us/news-perspectives/technology-innovation/emerging-technologies-and-impact-on society.html , 2018.
Idris Ademuyiwa and Adedeji Adeniran, Assessing Data Protection and Privacy in Africa, Centre for International Governance Innovation (CIGI), Paper No. 244, 2020.
International IDEA Publications Office SE -103 34 Stockholm Sweden, https://www.corteidh.or.cr/tablas/28047.pdf, 2023.
International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (IDEA), Introducing Electronic Voting: Essential Considerations, Policy Paper, International IDEA Resources on Electoral Processes, 2011.
Ira S. Rubinstein, Voter Privacy in the Age of Big Data, Wisconsin Law Review: 861, 2014. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2447956
Kamotho Walganjo, The Electronic System has added no value to our Elections, discard it, The Standard, https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/kamotho-waiganjo/article/2001470939/the-electronic-system-has-added-no-value-to-our-elections-discard-it, 2023.
Kogeda, O. P., & Mpekoa, N., Model for a mobile phone voting system for South Africa, Proceedings of 15th Annual Conference on World Wide Web Applications (ZAWWW 2013), Cape Town: Peninsula University of Technology, 2013.
M. Japhet, Military Coups and Military Regimes in Africa, Scientia Militaria, South African Journal of Military Studies, Vol. 8. No. 4. p. 1, 1978. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5787/8-4-756
Michelle Gavin. Democracy in Name Only for Africa, Council on Foreign Relations, https://www.cfr.org/blog/democracy-name-only-africa, 2023.
Nathaniel Allen, The Promises and Perils of Africa’s Digital Revolution, https://www.brookings.edu/articles/the-promises-and-perils-of-africas-digital- revolution/#:~:text=Across%20the%20African%20continent%2C%20the,%E2%80%9Csmart%20cities%E2%80%9 D%20are%20proliferating, 2021.
National Democratic Institute (NDI), The Constitutionality of Electronic Voting in Germany, https://www.ndi.org/e-voting-guide/examples/constitutionality-of-electronic-voting-germany, Germany: National Democratic Institute.
Nnena Ifeanyi-Ajufo and Leena Koni Hoffmann, ‘Tech Alone Won’t Improve Trust in Nigeria’s Elections’ 23rd February,https://www.chathamhouse.org/2023/02/tech-alone-wont-improve-trust-nigerias-elections , 2023.
Okediran, O. O., Omidiora, E. O., Olabiyisi, S. O., Ganiyu R. A., & Alo O. O., A Framework for Electronic Voting System, International Journal of Applied Science and Technology, 1 (4), 2011.
Patrick J. McGowan, African Military Coup d’e tat, 1956 -2001: Frequency, Trends and Distribution, Journal of Modern African Studies, 2023.
Philippe C. Schmitter and Terry Lynn Karl, ‘What is Democracy…and is not’ Journal of Democracy, Vol.2. No. 3 (Summer), 1991. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.1991.0033
Reddy, A. V., and Raghavan, S, Architecture of Multi-Channel Multi-Database. India: Network Systems Laboratory, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, 2009.
Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27th April 2016 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, and repealing Directive 95/46/EC (General Data Protection Regulation), 2016.
Rose Mosero, Technology and Data Protection must go Hand-in-Hand, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/08/08/in-kenya-s-2022-elections-technology-and-data-protection-must-go-hand-in-hand-pub-87647 , 2022.
Sinan Kufeoglu, Emerging Technologies, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361926605_Emerging_Technologies, ResearchGate.
Todd Landman, Developing Democracy: Concepts, Measures, and Empirical Relationships, Centre for Democratic Governance Department of Government, University of Essex Wivenhoe Park Colchester, EssexCO4 3SQ United Kingdom, Sweden: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2007.
Voter Registration: Basic Elements of Voter Registration, https://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/wps/publication/Chapter4.htm, 2023.
Wig, T., and Rod, E. G., Cues to Coup Plotters: Elections as Coup Triggers in Dictatorships, Journal of Conflict Resolution, 60(5), 787-812, 2016. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002714553106
William Gumede, How Lack of Democracy Fuels Coups in Africa, Democracy Works Foundation, https://www.democracyworks.org.za/how-lack-of-democracy-fuels-coups-in- africa/, 2003.
Yu, S., Big privacy: Challenges and Opportunities of Privacy Study in the Age of Big Data, IEEE Access, 4, 2751-2763, 2016. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2016.2577036